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Francisco Hernandez
Crops In Ancient Egypt
Agriculture was very important to the Ancient Egyptians. The yearly flood of the Nile River allowed them to grow a large variety of crops. These crops played an important role in their daily life and economy (Boulos, 2007, p.507). The most important of these crops were wheat and barley. Wheat and barley were important to the Ancient Egyptians for food, payment, and religion.
The farming of wheat and barley has it’s roots in the neolithic period of Egypt. During this period, different varieties of wild grasses were exploited and cultivated by the Ancient Egyptians for food (Boulos, 2007, p.508). But it’s during the pre-dynastic period that wheat and barley become domesticated in the Nile Valley region (Boulos, 2007, p.508).
It is apparent that during this time and afterward, wheat and barley become an important source of food for the Ancient Egyptians. One variety, emmer wheat played an important role in the daily lives of the Ancient Egyptians (Leek, 1973, p.19). It was used to make bread for food as well as beer (Boulos, 2007, p.509). Both of these were seen as an important part of Egyptian meals and were consumed by the rich and the poor (Boulos, 2007, p.509). It was also cultivated up until the period of Roman occupation (Boulos, 2007, p.509). Barley was also grown alongside wheat and used for food and beer (Boulos, 2007, p.509).
Wheat and barley were also important as wages. Both wheat and barley were used to make beer. While being a staple of the Egyptians diet, it was also used as a form of payment. Laborers were paid in beer as often as three times a day (Hill, 2012).
Wheat and barley were also important in Ancient Egyptian religion and mythology. One indication of this lies in many of the tombs in Egypt. Jars of beer as well as loaves of bread are often found in tombs (Boulos, 2007, p.509). This shows that the Ancient Egyptians believed in having their food staples in the afterlife. Wheat and Barley are also referenced in Ancient Egyptian hymns. One hymn references the earth god Geb (Hughs, 1992, p.16). To the Egyptians, he is the god that creates barley and wheat. If he doesn’t allow flooding, then famine occurs (Hughs, 1992, p.16). This shows that of all the crops harvested, wheat and barley were the most important to be referenced in a hymn to a god and that if he did not flood the nile, they would lose their only source of food and their way of life. There were also festivals that celebrated the annual harvest (Hughs, 1992, p.16). Wheat played a role in the beginning of these festivals. In one festival, the pharaoh would cut the first sheaf of wheat and a bull was led in procession (Hughs, 1992, p.16). This also showed how wheat and agriculture as a whole was an important part of Egyptian religion.
These reasons are why no other crops were more important to the Ancient Egyptians than wheat and barley. They played an important role as a food source by being used to bake bread and brew beer, both staples of the Ancient Egyptian diet. They were used as payment to workers in the form of beer. They were also seen as an important part of religion being found in tombs as well as being referenced in ancient hymns and being apart of ceremonies. Wheat and barley were undoubtedly an important part of life for the Ancient Egyptians.
Bibliography
Boulos, Loutfy, and Ahmed Gamal-El-Din Fahmy. “Grasses in Ancient Egypt.” Kew Bulletin, Vol. 62, No. 3 (Springer, 2007): 507-511
Hill, Jenny. “Beer in Ancient Egypt”. Ancient Egypt Online, 2012. http://www.ancientegyptonline.co.uk/beer
Hughes, Donald J. “Sustainable Agriculture in Ancient Egypt.” Agricultural History, Vol. 66, No.
2, (Agricultural History Society, 1992): 12-22
Leek, F. Filce. “Further Studies Concerning Ancient Egyptian Bread”. The Journal of Egyptian Archeology, Vol. 59 pp 199-204. August 1973, Egypt Exploration Society. Accessed 8 October 2014
Law and Equality in Ancient Egypt
The Ancient Egyptians had a law and judicial system that was influenced greatly by their religion. One of these influences was the goddess Ma’at. To the Egyptians she was the goddess of balance (Hughes 1992, p.14). This idea of balance influenced how the Egyptians dealt with the law and the people it affected. In Ancient Egypt, there was a lot of equality in how people were treated under the law in the judicial system. The is evidence that supports the idea of equality in the Egyptian judicial system is: women were treated the same as men, the poor were treated as well as the rich.
There was a lot of equality for women in the Egyptian legal system. In Egypt the legal status of women was nearly identical with that of men (Johnson). In the legal arena, both women and men could act on their own, and were responsible for their own actions (Johnson). Women could acquire, own, and dispose of property in their own name (Johnson). Joint property between a man and a woman also existed (Johnson). They could also enter into contracts with their own name (Johnson).Women could initiate a civil court case, and also be sued themselves (Johnson). They could also serve as witnesses in a court case, jury members, and witness court documents (Johnson).
Women also faced equal punishment under Egyptian law. As shown in the court records of the Harem Conspiracy against Ramses III, there were several women that were convicted and punished. “Wives of the people of the harem-gate, who united with the men, when the things were discussed; who were placed before the nobles of the court of examination; they found them guilty; they brought their punishment upon them: six women” (Dollinger). This group of women were among many other men that were convicted and punished during the trial. The punishment the women faced isn’t specific, but it seems that it was less harsh than the punishments that some of the men in the trial faced. Some of the men were given the option to commit suicide, while others had their noses and ears cut off which was considered a mark of shame (Dollinger). This shows that women were treated similarly, if not better during trials.
Peasants also enjoyed some equality under the Egyptian legal system as well. Some evidence to support this comes from the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. In the story, a peasant is set up and wrongfully accused of destroying an overseers property (Barton 1920, p.418). He is punished by having his donkey taken away and being beaten (Barton 1920, p.418). The peasant is able to get the landowner and higher officials to hear his case (Barton 1920, p.418). They are impressed with the speeches that he gives and eventually order that his donkey be returned (Barton 1920, p.418). This story shows that even the legal problems of a peasant were important and that peasants had the same legal rights as the rich (Andrews).
The judicial system in Egypt allowed for a great amount of equality. Women had nearly the same legal status as men. They enjoyed the same benefits of the legal system as men and also faced the same punishments. The poor also had the same rights as the rich and were given the same opportunities in the legal system. These opportunities for women and peasants are good evidence that show a great amount of equality in the Egyptian legal system.
Bibliography
Andrews, Mark. “Egypt: Law and the Legal System in Ancient Egypt.” http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/law.htm (accessed November 28, 2014).
Barton, George A. Archaeology and the Bible, (Philadelphia: American Sunday School, 1920): 418-421
Dollinger, Andre. “Records of the Harem Conspiracy against Ramses III.” http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/judicial_turin_papyrus.htm (accessed November 28, 2014).
Hughes, Donald J. “Sustainable Agriculture in Ancient Egypt.” Agricultural History, Vol. 66, No.
2, (Agricultural History Society, 1992): 12-22
Johnson, Janet H. “Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt.”http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190170/ (accessed November 28, 2014).
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Religion and Agriculture In Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian agriculture was influenced by many environmental, cultural, and social factors. One of these factors was religion. There are many aspects to Ancient Egyptian religion; however, some aspects had more influence on agriculture in Ancient Egypt than others. The aspects of Egyptian religion that had the most influence on agriculture were: the various gods and the mythologies that they are associated with, the rituals and festivals the Egyptians held, hymns and prayers to the gods, and animal cults.
The Ancient Egyptians worshipped many gods that influenced their view on their relationship with the environment and their use of it. One of these gods was the sun-god Ra. In Ancient Egyptian mythology, Ra is the creator of the entire world and mankind. In the creation myth, Ra creates mankind by weeping, and when his tears fall on the earth, man is created (Budge, 1912, p.42). This is a good example of the Egyptian mythology using the earth and growth as an element in its stories. According to some accounts, Ra also orders the cycle of three seasons in the Egyptian year revolving around the inundation of the Nile river (Hart, 1986, p.133). Ra was the main god in the city of Heliopolis, but he grew to be a main god during the Old Kingdom (Hart, 1986, p.133). Other gods merged their names with his to create gods like Amun-Ra while others took the place of sun-god like Aten (Hart, 1986, p.134). However; Ra’s influence is seen in each of these gods. Since Ra was the sun-god, much emphasis was placed on sun worship.
Osiris was another god that heavily influenced the Ancient Egyptians views on agriculture. Although he was commonly as god of the underworld, Osiris was also seen as a god that was linked to the earth. Originally a local deity in the eastern delta, he was associated with agriculture and annually recurring events in nature (Shaw, 2000, p.103). In the myth of Osiris, he is killed by his brother Seth or Set (Hart, 1986, p.117). In some versions of the myth he is drowned in the Nile and dismembered (Hart, 1986, p.117). He is found by his older sister Isis who brings him back to life so he can conceive the god Horus with her (Hart, 1986, p.117). For the Ancient Egyptians, the myth of his resurrection mirrors the revitalization of the Egyptian soil after the annual flooding of the nile receded (Shaw, 2000, p.103). This is a great example of the Ancient Egyptians using their mythology and religion to explain natural events.
Osiris is also seen as a grain-god throughout Egyptian history as well. An example of this is found in burial chambers from New Kingdom. Wooden frames were placed inside the burial chambers to support an Osiris bed (Hart, 1986, p.119). This bed was filled with silt and then a shape of Osiris was made in the silt (Hart, 1986, p.119). Barley was then planted in this model which sometimes grew to be 8 inches tall (Hart, 1986, p.119). This is a great example of connections between the gods and agriculture. New Kingdom mythological papyri also refers to Osiris lying with an erect penis on desert sand (Hart, 1986, p.119). This indicated his coming to life in the barren terrain surrounding his tomb (Hart, 1986, p.119). This is a much more explicit example of how the ancient Egyptians connected mythology with natural occurrences. Another way Osiris was connected to agriculture and the cycle of crops was the way his skin was painted. His face and hands were painted black to represent the silt of the Nile. His flesh was also painted green to represent the color of vegetation (Hart, 1986, p.119).
Later under the Ptolemaic dynasty, Isis became a popular goddess among Egyptians and Greeks and was given many attributes that were previously associated with Ra and Osiris (Budge, 1912, p.198). She was regarded as the eternal mother of life and of all living things (Budge, 1912, p.198). She created crops, trees, and plants of all kinds (Budge, 1912, p.198). She made cattle prolific and was also involved with the nile flood (Budge, 1912, p.198). When her star, Sothis, rose just before the sun, it meant flood time was near (Hughes 1992, p.14). Many of these attributes were given to her to make her more similar to the Greek gods and as a result, more popular. Even though she is changed to make her more acceptable to the Greeks, there is still a connection between a god and agriculture in Egypt.
There were other gods that had an influence on agriculture. Ma’at was the goddess of balance (Hughes 1992, p.14). She was also considered to be cosmic consciousness itself (Hughes 1992, p.14). She includes and harmonizes what appears to be antithesis in nature (Hughes 1992, p.14). In the Old Kingdom, she was an integral part of the existence of Ra and Osiris (Hart, 1986, p.89). She is described as standing behind Ra or at his nostrils (Hart, 1986, p.89). Osiris was also called the lord of Ma’at (Hart, 1986, p.89). She may not be directly tied to agriculture, but she represents an idea that the Egyptians followed. Balance and working with nature.
There was also Nut and Geb, who represent the sky goddess and the earth god respectively (Hughes 1992, p.15). They were brother and sister that produced the gods Osiris, Set, and Isis (Hughes 1992, p.15). In Egyptian mythology, when the stars which were the children of Nut showed the proper season, Gebs children, the plants, bore fruit (Hughes 1992, p.15). Again this is another example of how the Ancient Egyptians used the gods and mythology to explain their natural environment and agriculture worked. Nut and Geb also show the idea of balance in nature (Hughes 1992, p.15). They are opposite genders. Also, one represents the sky and one represents the earth, but both work together to help grow fruit.
There were three other gods that were also important to to the Egyptians view of agriculture. Horus was one of these gods. The son of Isis and Osiris, he was considered the god of fertile land, while his counterpart, the god Set, was the god of the desert (Hughes 1992, p.15). The other god is Hapi, god of the Nile. Though he is male, he is depicted having breasts to show that he is the bringer of fertility and nurturing (Hughes 1992, p.15). He controlled the annual Nile inundation and as a result, was an important god to the Ancient Egyptians because they depended on the Nile (Hughes 1992, p.15).
Rituals and also played an important role in influencing the Ancient Egyptians views about agriculture. Some rituals represented the gods and their respective myths. One example of this, is rituals involving the god Osiris. In the ramessum papyrus, Osiris is represented by barley that is threshed or beaten by the god Set who is represented by a mule (Hart, 1986, p.119). Another ritual during the Ptolemaic period was called “driving the calves” (Hart, 1986, p.119). This was supposed to encourage divine intervention to bring bumper harvests by the hooves of the calves threshing grain on a floor sacred to Osiris (Hart, 1986, p.119).
Some rituals were used to appease the gods and ensure a good harvest. One ritual took place near Cairo, when the Egyptians began breaking dams and letting water into the canals and fields after the Nile started to rise (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). There would be a dam built near the entrance of a canal before the Nile started to flood (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). A mound was formed in front of the dam, on the side of the river (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). Seeds were sown on top of this mound that the Egyptians called a “bride” (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). The “bride” was usually washed away by the rising Nile a week before the dam was broken (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). This ritual is based off of the idea of a marriage between the Nile, which in this instance is seen as a male, and the land which is seen as female (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). The ritual seemed to be used to promote the growth of crops. There are several other rituals that are similar to this one in Ancient Egypt. In other areas along the Nile, priests would throw money and gold offerings into the river at the same time the Nile was rising (Frazer, 1922, p.330a). These rituals offer more evidence that the Egyptians believed in appeasing the gods and asking for their favor in growing crops.
Some festivals were also tied to Egyptian religion and it’s influence on agriculture. One of these festivals, was the festival of Sokar (Dollinger). The god Sokar shared some similarities with the god Osiris in that both were seen as gods of agriculture, and the dead (Dollinger). During the festival, there would be a procession where people wore onions around their necks (Dollinger). They also acted out certain agricultural activities like hoeing, and digging canals. The festival was also associated with death, especially the death of Osiris. Figurines were made to represent either Osiris or Sokar (Dollinger). It was then divided to represent the dividing of Osiris’ body. This festival also marked the end of the first season in Egypt (Dollinger). After the festival of Sokar, the rebirth of Nehebkau was celebrated during the first day of the fifth month (Dollinger). This festival celebrated Osiris being reborn as the god Horus (Dollinger). This is another good example of a connection between the myths of Ancient Egypt and their tie to agriculture.
Another festival that had ties to agriculture, was the festival of the fertility god Min. This festival also involved participation from the pharaoh. There was a procession that involved a statue of Min being carried from his temple to a platform in the country (Dollinger). The statue was placed on the platform and the pharaoh prayed to Min and brought offerings (Dollinger). Hymns were sang and the pharaoh reaped the first grain symbolizing his role as the sustainer of life (Dollinger). This is another festival that the Egyptians placed great importance as shown by the pharaohs involvement. It also another example of how the Egyptians involved religion with agriculture.
Hymns were also an important aspect of Ancient Egyptian religion that were connected to agriculture. One of these hymns, was written to the goddess Hathor. The hymn praises Hathor for causing many of the natural events that benefit the agriculture of Egypt. Part of the hymn states, “ You cause the flood flowing downriver in it’s season, an appropriate flood, devoid of calamities, in order to make it spread over both lands” (Dollinger). In another place it states, “ You cause the watered earth to close over the seed when its right time has come and to gleam with all the grain it has received, which grow and mature, healthy and magnificent”(Dollinger). This shows the belief that a god had control over the Nile and it’s flooding, as well as the ability for crops to grow. The hymn also states that it allows the men who plant and harvest the crops to work in joy (Dollinger). While the people working and harvesting on the crops may not have always been happy, this hymn at least shows a positive outlook on agriculture in ancient Egypt. It maybe suggests that Egyptians thought that planting and harvesting was easy for them because they had help from the gods that flooded the Nile and made it fertile.
There were also hymns dedicated to the Nile itself and the gods associated with it. In one of these hymns, the Nile is praised for watering and nourishing Egypt (Hughes 1992, p.15). It also mentions that the Nile is the beloved of the earth god Geb (Hughes 1992, p.16). It is also interesting that the hymn states that when the flooding is low bad things happen (Hughes 1992, p.16). The land is in terror and everyone becomes impoverished. (Hughes 1992, p.16) But when the flood rises, everybody is happy (Hughes 1992, p.16). It also states that the people hail the Nile as king and that it’s laws are unchanging (Hughes 1992, p.16). This hymn shows how important the Nile was to the Ancient Egyptians. It shows that they were incredibly dependent on the Nile for their very existence and that worshipped it because of that.
Some animal cults were also connected to Ancient Egyptian agriculture. One of the farm animals that was important to the Ancient Egyptians was cattle (Dodson, 2009, p.1). The cow was considered to be the animal form of the goddess Hathor (Dodson, 2009, p.1). Also, the bull was considered to be a sacred animal to the Egyptians (Dodson, 2009, p.1). The Apis bull ended up taking part in many rituals such as running alongside the pharaoh in a festival (Dodson, 2009, p.2). When a bull died, a search was made to find its successor (Dodson, 2009, p.2). The bull was also embalmed and buried with great care (Dodson, 2009, p.2). This treatment of animals shows that the ancient Egyptians not only believed the Nile and it’s flooding to be important, but also the animals that helped them in their farming and harvesting.
Religion obviously played a very important part in how the Ancient Egyptians viewed agriculture. Their gods and myths heavily emphasized life, rebirth, growth, and harmony with nature. The rituals and festivals they held showed how much they believed that the gods had influence on their agriculture. The hymns also showed how much the Egyptians believed in the power of the gods to control their lives through nature. The animal cults also showed that not only were the crops and the Nile important, but that the animals that helped the Ancient Egyptians farm were important as well. All of these things show how closely the religion of Ancient Egypt was tied with their agriculture and how it influenced their respect of nature and the environment.
Bibliography
Budge, E.A. Wallis. Legends Of The Gods (London: Kegan Paul, Trench and Trubner & Co. Ltd., 1912)
Dodson, Aidan. “Rituals Related To Animal Cults.” UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, (UCLA, 2009)
Dollinger, Andre. “Hymn To Hathor." Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/hathorhymn.htm (accessed November 19, 2014).
Dollinger, Andre. “Public Religious Ceremonies." Reshafim.org.il. http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/ceremonies/index.html (accessed November 18, 2014).
Dollinger, Andre. “Sokar." http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/religion/sokar.htm (accessed November 19, 2014).
Frazer, James George, Sir. The Golden Bough: A Study In Magic and Religion (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1922)
Hart, George. The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses (New York: Routledge ,1986)
Hughes, Donald J. “Sustainable Agriculture in Ancient Egypt.” Agricultural History, Vol. 66, No.
2, (Agricultural History Society, 1992): 12-22
Shaw, Ian, ed. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)