Periods of Prosperity
By
Sarah Katsuleres
The Ancient Egyptian civilization lasted for over 3000 years making them one of the longest sustained civilizations known
today. Throughout all its 3000 years, ancient Egypt survived many high and low periods. Modern Egyptologists categorize these
times as Kingdoms and Intermediate periods. (Brewer and Teeter, 1999 p. xiii) The Kingdom periods are viewed as the high
points, a civilization under the rule of a Pharaoh. During these periods, religion was the ultimate force behind every aspect of
Egyptian daily life. The Egyptians spent their entire lives serving and worshiping the Pharaoh. The periods in between the Pharaoh rule is known as the Intermediate periods. Egyptologists view these periods as the low points, the “dark Ages” of the ancient Egyptian civilization; “A period of chaos, decline, misery and social and political dissolution.” (Shaw. 2000, p.134) Despite these Intermediate periods being viewed as times of “crisis”, the ancient Egyptian’s self-determination and perseverance flourished. Major cultural and social developments were made during these times. It was during the Intermediate periods, the true high points, that the ancient Egyptians experienced a spiritual and cultural awakening.
During the first Kingdom, known as the Old Kingdom, Egypt’s economy was at its highest point and society was ruled by a divine king, the Pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians religion was a complex system of Polytheistic beliefs and rituals. They worshiped a vast array of gods that they could choose from to help them in their day to day lives. The Pharaoh was believed to be a descendant of one these gods. The ancient Egyptians believed that by obeying the Pharaoh he would in turn protect the people and the land. (Brier & Hobbs. 2009, p. 73) It was the Pharaohs responsibility to provide law and order over his people. These laws were determined by the goddess, Ma’at. She personified truth, balance, order and justice. Without her existence, the Egyptians believed the Universe would be in chaos. (Brewer & Teeter. 1999, p. 87-88)
The idea of life after death was very important to the ancient Egyptians. No other civilization has ever invested more faith, energy and resources into attaining eternal life. (Brier& Hobbs. 2009, p. 53) The common Egyptian had to earn his way into the next life through his daily actions by following the rules of Ma’at and obeying the Pharaoh. Only the Pharaoh was guaranteed eternal life after death. The Pharaoh had tremendous power that stretch over the entire land of Egypt. The land was far too large for one man to manage so he created a government system. No better evidence of this power of the Pharaoh and his government can be cited than the Royal Pyramid tombs. (Brewer & Teeter. 1999, p34) Most of the Pharaohs during the time of the Old Kingdom constructed massive burial tombs for their journey into the next life. Thousands upon thousands of workers were employed to work on these projects for the Pharaoh. These Pyramid builders were free citizens that signed up willingly to work for this national cause. They labored in gratitude of their Pharaoh so that he could be resurrected as a god in the next life. (Brier & Hobbs. 2009, p. 218) These majestic tombs that were erected over 4000 years ago still stand as awesome and enduring as they did when they were first built. So much time and dedication was put into these structures so that one man and in some cases, his close family, would attain a life after death.
What was the common man to do with his tomb? There has been some evidence to suggest that the common Egyptian would be buried near the Pharaohs’ tomb in the hope that he would take them with him into the next world. (Brier & Hobbs. 2009, p. 54) The common man’s tomb was nowhere near as elaborate as the Pharaohs’. Most of these tombs were just shallow pits with some of the deceased’s valuables and goods that would help him on his journey into the next life. The Pharaohs’ tomb had several rooms used to store all of this earthly treasures and everything he would need to keep him sustained in the next life. To help the Pharaoh when he wakes after his death, the tomb walls were covered with what is known as Pyramid texts. These were religious spells to protect the Pharaoh and re-animate his body after death and to help him ascend to the Heavens. A very small number of people knew of these texts, mainly the royal scribes.
After a little over 500 years, the Old Kingdom came to an end. The Pharaoh lost control over the people.
There are several arguments to attest as to how this decline came about but, this was the time of awakening for the
common Egyptian; the First Intermediate Period. During this time the common man became wealthy with goods and
even knowledge. “…archeological and epigraphic data indicate the existence of a thriving culture among the poorer
levels of society as well as vigorous social development.” (Shaw. 2000, p. 110) With their new found wealth and
knowledge, the common Egyptian decided that it was time to focus on their own life after death. It was during this First
Intermediate period that the Egyptians became aware of the sacred Pyramid Texts. The ordinary Egyptian could now
afford more elaborate burials. The use of coffins was utilized during this time and the Egyptians could now have spells
inscribed in them, similar to the ones found in the Pharaohs’ tombs. These spells became known as Coffin Texts.
(Brier & Hobbs. 2009, p. 55) The common man was now able to ensure his own passage into eternal life just as the
Pharaoh had been doing for over 500 years.
With the development of larger tombs for the common Egyptian, the need for better burial goods was great.
The ancient Egyptians discovered new means of cultural expression and communication. The use of ornaments and
amulets of gold and jewels were not only used in funeral practices during this time but, for daily life as well. Advancements in trade with other cultures were made during this period. The ancient Egyptians developed a method for mass production of their pottery through the invention of the pottery wheel. (Shaw. 2000, p 113) In turn, the symbol of the scarab was introduced to Egypt from cultures in the East. We can see the evidence of these scarab images all over ancient Egyptian artifacts. Even with the common mans’ new wealth, there was a decline in fine art. Most people could not afford to pay artists for their fine artwork like the Pharaoh had done during the Old Kingdom. So it was now up to the everyday Egyptian to create his own works of art. Evidence of this can be seen on the mummified remains found during this period. A colorful mask made of linen was placed on the head of the deceased, called a cartonnage. We can see evidence of this practice stretching into later civilizations such as, ancient Rome. Another example of new cultural expression from this time was the creation of 3D models that depicted the everyday life of the Egyptian. These models were mostly scenes of craftsmen at work. (Wilkinson. 2010, p. 128-129) These models were placed in the burial tombs of the common man along with all their other grave goods. These models gave the modern Egyptologists tremendous insight into the daily life practices of the ordinary Egyptian. “The impact the First Intermediate Period had on Egypt’s cultural history cannot be denied.” (Shaw. 2000, p. 136)
The First Intermediate Period, or what I would refer to it as the Period of Enlightenment, lasted for about 140 years. The
ancient Egyptians found themselves under the thumb of a Pharaohs rule again. This period is known as the Middle Kingdom
and only lasted half as long as the Old Kingdom. The everyday Egyptian went back to working for the Pharaoh on their
massive burial structures. Some of these workers were volunteers and some were forced into labor. (Wilkinson. 2010, p. 181)
The average Egyptian no longer felt the necessity to spend their lives catering to the Pharaohs quest for the afterlife. The
common man became more empowered with the knowledge that they gained when left to their own merits during the First
Intermediate Period. Large pyramid towns were created to house and care for all the thousands of workers employed during
the Middle Kingdom. One of the more known pyramid towns from this period is Kahun. This town was established during the
building of the Pyramid for Senusert II, c. 1895 BC. (Parsons. 1996-2013) The discovery of this pyramid town gave
Egyptologists a better understanding of the ancient Egyptian society and structure. We see a development of city planning
and more titles given to the people. An abundance of literary documents can also be found, indicating an influx of education
for the common man. The ancient Egyptians developed a thirst for knowledge that could not be quenched.
By the time the Middle Kingdom collapsed, Egypt was becoming more populated with foreign immigrants. The Second Intermediate Period was a time of influence from outside the boarders of Egypt. Most of the immigrants were economic migrants from the East and were referred to as Asiatic. (Shaw. 2000, p. 175) Some of these immigrants would take on Egyptian names to help them assimilate. As much as the Asiatic’s were trying to blend into Egyptian culture, some of their culture was “rubbing off” on Egypt. During this time we see evidence of Syrian and Palestinian influences in the burial practices. Tombs were found inside the living areas instead of in the Egyptian cemeteries. There is also an incorporation of animals being buried in the tombs. (Shaw. 2000, p. 175-176) It was not just the burial practices that changed during this time; differences can be seen in the pottery and weaponry. The ancient Egyptians embraced these cultural changes with open arms for over 200 years.
The ancient Egyptians found themselves under the rule of a Pharaoh for the third time; this period is known as the New Kingdom. So much more is known about this period than any other. Many of the Pharaohs that we are more familiar with today are from this time, such as; Ramses II, Tutankhamun and the first female Pharaoh, Hatshepsut. (rashafim.org, 2004) This period lasted almost as long as the Old Kingdom. The New Kingdom was what some may refer to as a “cosmopolitan age”. There was a great incorporation of foreign inhabitants. Many diplomatic marriages and peace treaties were made during this time. (Brewer & Teeter. 1999, p. 37) Ultimately, the weight of all the external forces was too strong for Egypt to handle during this time. So with the collapse of another Kingdom brings the dawning of a new phase for the Egyptians known as the Third Intermediate Period.
The Third Intermediate Period had its own ups and downs. This period would be considered a time cultural awakening. “This 400 year period may justly be regarded as marking a new phase in Egypt’s history. …. categorized by significant changes in Egypt’s political organization, society and culture.” (Shaw. 2000, p. 324) During this time we see the reduction of burial goods and the use of coffin texts. We also see a reduction in tomb size for the Royals and elite. There is evidence found to “reflect major changes in attitudes to death and burial.” (Shaw. 2000, P. 358) These changes were no necessarily negative. It was during this time that the Egyptians put greater attention on the preservation of the body for its journey to the afterlife. The mummification process “reached its peak”. There was an increase of cosmetic treatments on the face itself, replacing the masks created in the First Intermediate Period. Extra care was also taken in arranging the hair and preserving the fingernails. (Shaw. 2000, p. 359) More evidence of cultural influences can be seen with the integration of metal work. Silver coffins, gold jewelry and bronze statues can be found during this time. A new tradition of making small figurines of deities out of bronze and a process of making large bronze statues referred to as “hollow cast”, influenced other cultures. (Shaw. 2000, p. 362) The “native” ancient Egyptians still
had a very powerful belief in life after death. With the burial tombs decreasing in size and the decline of the coffin texts,
the Egyptians still needed a way of protecting their body and help them ascend to the afterlife, so they created the
Shabti doll. This funerary figurine was believed to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. Most of these dolls were
made of faience, a ceramic like material that could be mixed with many colorful minerals. These dolls would have spells
inscribed on them much like the coffin texts. (Dunn. 1996-2013) During this period we see all classes of Egyptians buried
in groups at sites all over Egypt. The social structure lines have become blurred.
The Third Intermediate period was by far the longest of all the intermediate periods, lasting 413 years.
Many major cultural changes were made during this time. Some view this period as a very low point in ancient Egyptian
history, “… the Nile Valley was racked by division, conflict and foreign occupation.” (Wilkinson. 2010, p 364) Despite all
the highs and lows that Egypt had endured over the centuries it still stayed true to its roots mainly through its religious
beliefs. The ancient Egyptians made tremendous strides in technology and innovations way beyond their time. They had a determination and drive to preserve themselves that cannot be matched by any other civilization. It was during the Intermediate periods, the true high points, that the ancient Egyptians discovered who they were a society as well as a dynamic culture.
Bibliography
Brewer, Douglas J. and Teeter, Emily. Egypt and the Egyptians. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Brier, Bob and Hobbs, Hoyt. Ancient Egypt: Everyday Life in the Land of the Nile. (New York: Sterling Publishing, 2009)
Dunn, Jimmy. “Funerary Figurines including Shabti, Shawabti and Ushabti Workers for the Dead ”. Tour Egypt, (1996-2013) Accessed (Nov 2014) http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ushabti.htm
Parsons, Marie. “Kahun: Middle Kingdom Workers”. Tour Egypt, (1996-2013) Accssed (Nov 2014)
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/kahun.htm
Shaw, Ian, ed. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)
Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. (New York: Random House Trade Paperback, 2010)
